David Rodriguez

David Rodriguez

I am Assistant Professor and hold a Ph.D. in Privacy Engineering at the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM), specializing in Privacy and Data Protection.

Publications

You can also find my articles on my Google Scholar profile.

📌 Featured Publications

Overcoming Language Barriers: Multilingual Analysis of the 2023 Swiss Privacy Law’s Impact

Published in Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies, 2026(4), 703-723, 2026

This paper studies the real-world impact of Switzerland’s 2023 privacy law revision using a multilingual LLM-based pipeline for privacy policy analysis. Applied to policies from more than 35,000 Swiss- and EU-facing websites, it finds significant increases in data-subject-right disclosures and highlights the role of automated privacy policy generators.

Recommended citation: L. Nenadic, D. Rodriguez, J.A. Calandrino. "Overcoming Language Barriers: Multilingual Analysis of the 2023 Swiss Privacy Law's Impact." Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies, 2026(4), 703-723. https://doi.org/10.56553/popets-2026-0141
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Privacy Settings of Third-Party Libraries in Android Apps: A Study of Facebook SDKs

Published in Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies, 2025(2), 2025

This paper investigates how Android developers configure privacy-related settings when integrating the Facebook SDK and Audience Network SDK. Analyzing over 6,000 popular apps, the study finds that many retain default settings that are less privacy-friendly and fail to align with declared practices in privacy labels and policies. It offers recommendations for SDK providers to promote data minimization and improve transparency.

Recommended citation: D Rodriguez, JA Calandrino, JM Del Alamo, N Sadeh. "Privacy Settings of Third-Party Libraries in Android Apps: A Study of Facebook SDKs." Proceedings on Privacy Enhancing Technologies, 2025(2). https://doi.org/10.56553/popets-2025-0056
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📚 All Publications

Digital Markets and Hidden Noncompliance

Published in Journal of Legal Studies, Volume 55, Issue 2, Pages 433-461 (June 2026), 2026

This article studies hidden noncompliance in digital markets by comparing privacy policy disclosures with observed app data flows. Analyzing more than 2,500 Android apps after Schrems II, it shows that traditional policy-based empirical legal methods may miss over 70% of observed privacy violations.

Recommended citation: A. Zac, S. Bechtold, P. Wey, D. Rodríguez, J.M. Del Alamo. "Digital Markets and Hidden Noncompliance." Journal of Legal Studies, 55(2), 433-461, 2026. https://doi.org/10.1086/742146
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Towards Safer Chatbots: Automated Policy Compliance Evaluation of Custom GPTs

Published in Array, Volume 30 (2026), 100834, 2026

This paper presents an automated black-box method for evaluating whether Custom GPTs comply with marketplace usage policies. Applied to 782 GPT Store chatbots, the study finds that 58.7% produced at least one policy-violating response across Romantic, Cybersecurity, and Academic policy domains.

Recommended citation: D. Rodriguez, W. Seymour, J.M. Del Alamo, J. Such. "Towards Safer Chatbots: Automated Policy Compliance Evaluation of Custom GPTs." Array, 30 (2026), 100834. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.array.2026.100834
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GPT vs Human Legal Text Annotations: A Comparative Study with Privacy Policies

Published in Artificial Intelligence and Law, 2025

This article studies whether GPT models can reliably annotate privacy policies under a multi-label, multi-class legal taxonomy, benchmarking LLM-driven annotations against human annotators and showing near-human performance under controlled prompting and validation.

Recommended citation: D. Cevallos-Salas, J. Estrada-Jiménez, D. S. Guamán, D. Rodriguez, Jose M. Del Alamo. "GPT vs Human Legal Text Annotations: A Comparative Study with Privacy Policies." Artificial Intelligence and Law, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10506-025-09488-0
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Anycast and Third-party Libraries: A Recipe for a Privacy Disaster?

Published in IEEE Communications Magazine (Accepted for Publication, 2025), 2025

This article reveals that 98.65% of Android apps and 90% of third-party libraries using anycast potentially violate GDPR by enabling undisclosed international personal data transfers. It emphasizes the need for transparency and standardization in TPL privacy disclosures.

Recommended citation: H. Pascual, J.M. Del Alamo, D. Rodriguez, J.C. Dueñas. "Anycast and Third-party Libraries: A Recipe for a Privacy Disaster?" IEEE Communications Magazine, 2025. https://doi.org/10.1109/MCOM.006.2400576
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Large Language Models: A New Approach for Privacy Policy Analysis at Scale

Published in Computing (Springer), 2024, 2024

This paper evaluates the use of large language models like ChatGPT and Llama 2 to automate the analysis of privacy policies. Achieving F1 scores over 93% on benchmark datasets, it demonstrates that LLMs can outperform traditional NLP methods in accuracy, cost, and scalability.

Recommended citation: D. Rodriguez, I. Yang, J.M. Del Alamo, N. Sadeh. "Large Language Models: A New Approach for Privacy Policy Analysis at Scale." Computing (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00607-024-01331-9
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Data Retention Disclosures in the Google Play Store: Opacity Remains the Norm

Published in 2024 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW), 2024

Analyzing 2,235 privacy policies of Android apps, this paper finds that over 50% fail to meet GDPR transparency standards on data retention. The study uses GPT-4 to evaluate compliance and reveals critical gaps in disclosure practices within the Play Store ecosystem.

Recommended citation: D. Rodríguez, C. Fernández-Aller, J.M. Del Alamo, N. Sadeh. "Data Retention Disclosures in the Google Play Store: Opacity Remains the Norm." IEEE EuroS&P Workshops 2024. https://doi.org/10.1109/EuroSPW61312.2024.00009
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Hunter: Tracing Anycast Communications to Uncover Cross-Border Personal Data Transfers

Published in Computers & Security, Volume 141 (2024), 103823, 2024

Hunter is an automated method to trace anycast communications and assess GDPR compliance. Applied to 197 Android apps, it found that 100% of analyzed anycast flows resulted in cross-border personal data transfers, none of which were properly disclosed in privacy policies.

Recommended citation: H. Pascual, J.M. del Alamo, D. Rodriguez, J.C. Dueñas. "Hunter: Tracing Anycast Communications to Uncover Cross-Border Personal Data Transfers." Computers & Security, 141 (2024), 103823. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2024.103823
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Sharing is Not Always Caring: Delving Into Personal Data Transfer Compliance in Android Apps

Published in IEEE Access, Volume 12 (2024), 2024

Analyzing 9,000 Android apps, this paper shows that over 80% of those transferring personal data off-device fail to meet GDPR transparency requirements. It introduces a fully automated method to detect undisclosed personal data transfers and highlights the key role of third-party libraries in non-compliance.

Recommended citation: D. Rodriguez, J.M. Del Alamo, C. Fernández-Aller, N. Sadeh. "Sharing is Not Always Caring: Delving Into Personal Data Transfer Compliance in Android Apps." IEEE Access, 12 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1109/ACCESS.2024.3349425
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ROI: A Method for Identifying Organizations Receiving Personal Data

Published in Computing (Springer), Volume 106, Pages 163–184 (2024), 2023

ROI is an automated method to identify the organizations receiving personal data from Android apps. With a precision of 95.71%, the paper shows that 78% of apps fail to properly disclose these recipients, highlighting gaps in GDPR transparency compliance.

Recommended citation: D. Rodriguez, J.M. Del Alamo, M. Cozar, B. García. "ROI: A Method for Identifying Organizations Receiving Personal Data." Computing 106, 163–184 (2024). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00607-023-01209-2
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Comparing Privacy Label Disclosures of Apps Published in Both the App Store and Google Play Stores

Published in 2023 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW), 2023

Analyzing 822 apps available in both Google Play and the App Store, this study finds privacy label discrepancies in 66.5% of cases. It introduces methods to detect inconsistencies and explores the role of static analysis in validating app behaviors against label claims.

Recommended citation: D. Rodriguez, A. Jain, J.M. Del Alamo, N. Sadeh. "Comparing Privacy Label Disclosures of Apps Published in Both the App Store and Google Play Stores." IEEE EuroS&P Workshops 2023. https://doi.org/10.1109/EuroSPW59978.2023.00022
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ATLAS: Automatically Detecting Discrepancies Between Privacy Policies and Privacy Labels

Published in 2023 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW), 2023

ATLAS analyzes 354,725 iOS apps and finds that 88% of those with both privacy labels and policies exhibit at least one discrepancy. The tool uses NLP to identify mismatches between declared practices and privacy labels—raising concerns of widespread compliance gaps.

Recommended citation: A. Jain, D. Rodriguez, J.M. Del Alamo, N. Sadeh. "ATLAS: Automatically Detecting Discrepancies Between Privacy Policies and Privacy Labels." IEEE EuroS&P Workshops 2023. https://doi.org/10.1109/EuroSPW59978.2023.00016
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Automated GDPR Compliance Assessment for Cross-Border Personal Data Transfers in Android Applications

Published in Computers & Security, Volume 130 (2023), 103262, 2023

This paper presents an automated pipeline to assess GDPR compliance of cross-border personal data transfers in Android apps. Analyzing 4,593 apps, the study found that nearly half of those transferring data outside the EU fail to meet GDPR transparency obligations.

Recommended citation: D.S. Guamán, D. Rodriguez, J.M. del Alamo, J. Such. "Automated GDPR Compliance Assessment for Cross-Border Personal Data Transfers in Android Applications." Computers & Security, 130 (2023), 103262. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cose.2023.103262
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Reliability of IP Geolocation Services for Assessing the Compliance of International Data Transfers

Published in 2022 IEEE European Symposium on Security and Privacy Workshops (EuroS&PW), 2022

This paper evaluates 10 IP geolocation services and reveals their limitations for compliance analysis. When applied to data from 767 Android apps, services disagree on destinations of personal data flows—raising concerns for GDPR-based assessments of international transfers.

Recommended citation: M. Cozar, D. Rodriguez, J.M. Del Alamo, D. Guaman. "Reliability of IP Geolocation Services for Assessing the Compliance of International Data Transfers." IEEE EuroS&P Workshops 2022. https://doi.org/10.1109/EuroSPW55150.2022.00024
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